Обсуждение:Ночь и день
Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
| День и ночь (881 слово)
Чередование света (QV) и тьмы (QV) происходит из-за вращения Земли вокруг своей оси. Многочисленные упоминания в Курдане о дне и ночи (Аль — Нахар ва-л-Лейл) относятся к четырём общим темам. Во-первых, сам феномен дня и ночи, или его аспекты, часто преподносится как знак (ая, см. знаки), урок (шибра) или выражение Божьей милости (В. В.) для мудрых, чтобы они заметили и запомнили. Другие родственные аспекты феномена дня и ночи включают их изменение (ихтилаф), последовательность, покрывание одного другим и отделение одного от другого (Юлию, яклибу, ягша, яслуху). Как знамения или доказательства Бога, темнота ночи и яркость дня призваны свидетельствовать против неверующих (см. вера и неверие). Во-вторых, в Коране неоднократно утверждается, что вместе с такими природными явлениями, как небо (см. небо), земля (см. В.), море, облака и ветер (см. воздух и ветер), Бог подчиняет себе ночь и день для служения человечеству (см. природный мир и Коран; творение). Таким образом, ночь была создана как время отдыха, сна, сокрытия и сокрытия (маскан, Манам, субат, либас, Сармад, мустахфа), в то время как день существует для того, чтобы видеть, вставать, свободно ходить и искать средства к существованию (мубшир, нушур, сариб, МАХАШ, ибтигхах). Смена дня и ночи также позволяет людям вычислять годы и числа (q 17: 12; Qurtubī, Jāmiʿ, viii, 227-8; см. календарь; числа и перечисление). Третья тема-это точный способ, которым Бог создает день и ночь (q 39:5) так, чтобы каждый имел предписанную меру (q 73:20) и не нарушал орбиту другого (q 36:40). Интерпретации q 73: 20 часто утверждают, что только Бог знает точные меры дня и ночи, в то время как люди должны исследовать и осуществлять свое суждение, чтобы оценить эти меры (Qurtubī, Jāmiʿ, xix, 53). Наконец, есть несколько упоминаний о молитве и пении хвалы (QV) Богу в течение ночи и дня или их частей. Кроме того, Коран предписывает людям молиться в «ночные часы» (мин анади л — Лейл) и «в конце дня» (атраф Аль — Нахар, q 20:130); это, по мнению многих толкователей, относится к закату (Магриб) и вечерним(шишам) молитвам (Qurtubī, Jāmiʿ, xi, 261; см. молитву). Ссылки на Коран, помимо различных мирских забот, породили сложную математическую традицию вычисления точной продолжительности дня и ночи и определения времени молитвы относительно их начала и продолжительности. Для измерения продолжительности ночных и дневных часов использовались две системы. В системе равных часов один дневной час равен по длине одному ночному часу, и весь день делится на двадцать четыре равные части. Однако в системе неравных часов дуга дневного света и дуга ночи делятся на двенадцать равных частей; таким образом, один дневной час обычно отличается от ночного, в то время как общее число каждого из дневных и ночных часов всегда равно двенадцати. Хотя эта и другие темы уже рассматривались в доисламской астрономии, есть некоторые предметы, уникальные для Исламской астрономической традиции, которые не получили равноценного внимания в более ранних традициях (см. космология; наука). Одним из таких вопросов является подробное обсуждение рассвета и сумерек, которое возникло в связи с необходимостью определить утренние и вечерние молитвы, начинающиеся после рассвета и заката соответственно. Многие работы по исламской астрономии включают главы, посвященные рассвету и сумеркам, и содержат точные математические методы их определения (см. день, время суток). |
Day and Night (881 words)
Alternation between light (q.v.) and darkness (q.v.) due to the rotation of the earth upon its axis. The numerous references in the Qurʾān to day and night (al- nahār wa-l-layl) fall under four general themes. First, the phenomenon of day and night itself, or aspects of it, is frequently presented as a sign (āya, see signs), lesson (ʿibra) or expression of God’s mercy (q.v.) for the wise to note and remember. The other related aspects of the phenomenon of day and night include their alteration (ikhtilāf), succession, covering up one by the other and stripping off one from the other (yūliju, yaqlibu, yaghshā, yaslukhu). As signs or proofs of God, the darkness of the night and the brightness of the day are called to witness against unbelievers (see belief and unbelief). Second, the Qurʾān repeatedly affirms that together with such natural ¶ phenomena as the heavens (see heaven), earth (q.v.), sea, clouds and wind (see air and wind), God subjugates (yusakhkhir) the night and day for the service of humankind (see natural world and the qurʾān; creation). Thus, the night has been created as a time for rest, sleep, covering up and concealment (maskan, manām, subāt, libās, sarmad, mustakhfā) while the day exists for seeing, rising, walking freely and seeking one’s livelihood (mubṣir, nushūr, sārib, maʿāsh, ibtighāʾ). The alteration of night and day also enables people to compute years and numbers (q 17:12; Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, viii, 227-8; see calendar; numbers and enumeration). The third theme is the precise manner in which God creates day and night (q 39:5) so that each has a prescribed measure (q 73:20) and does not transgress the orbit of the other (q 36:40). Interpretations of q 73:20 often maintain that only God knows the exact measures of day and night whereas humans need to investigate and exercise their judgment to estimate these measures (Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, xix, 53). Finally, there are several references to praying and singing the praise (q.v.) of God during the night and day or parts thereof. Moreover, the Qurʾān enjoins people to pray at the «watches of the night» (min ānāʾi l- layl) and the «ends of the day» (aṭrāf al- nahār, q 20:130); this, according to many interpreters, is a reference to the sunset (maghrib) and evening(ʿishāʾ) prayers (Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, xi, 261; see prayer). Qurʾānic references, in addition to various mundane concerns, gave rise to an elaborate mathematical tradition of calculating the exact length of day and night and of determining the times of prayer relative to their beginning and duration. Two systems were used for measuring the length of the hours of the night and day. In the system of equal hours, one daylight hour is equal in length to one night hour and the whole day is divided into twenty-four equal ¶ parts. In the system of unequal hours, however, the arc of daylight and the arc of the night are each divided into twelve equal parts; thus, one daylight hour generally differs from a night hour while the total number of each of the daylight hours and the night hours is always twelve. While this and other topics were already treated in pre-Islamic astronomy, there are some subjects unique to the Islamic astronomical tradition which received no equivalent attention in earlier traditions (see cosmology and the qurʾān; science and the qurʾān). One such subject is the elaborate discussion of dawn and twilight which originated in the need to determine the morning and evening prayers commencing after dawn and sunset, respectively. Many works of Islamic astronomy include chapters on dawn and twilight and provide exact mathematical methods for their determination (see day, times of). |
Bibliography
- Primary
Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ
- Secondary
E.S. Kennedy, al-Bīrūnī on the Muslim times of prayer, in E.S. Kennedy et al. (eds.), Studies in the Islamic exact sciences, Beirut 1983, 299—310 (see also the sections on planetary and lunar visibility [140-163] and on rising times, daylight lengths and the duration of dawn and twilight [253-310])
D.A. King, Some early Islamic tables for determining lunar crescent visibility, in D. King and G. Saliba (eds.), From deferent to equant. A volume of studies in the history of science in the ancient and medieval Near East in honor of E.S. Kennedy, New York 1987, 185—225
G. Saliba, The height of the atmosphere according to Muʾayyad al-Dīn al-ʿUrḍī, Quṭb al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī and Ibn Muʾādh, in D. King and G. Saliba (eds.), From deferent to equant. A volume of studies in the history of science in the ancient and medieval Near East in honor of E.S. Kennedy, New York 1987, 445-65
- Cite this page
Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition / Layl and Nahār
(Ar.), two antithetical terms which designate respectively night and day, but do not have exactly the same status and are not parallel.
Layl is treated as a collective noun without dual (except in poetry where the use of this incorrect form is justified by the requirements of metre), or plural; it possesses, as would be expected, a noun of unity, laylatun “one night”, of which the plural layāl in and the seldom used diminutive luyayliyatun , are something of an embarrassment to philologists, who are inclined to consider them as formed either on * layliyatun or on * laylātun . Nahār , for its part, applies to the “day” which extends from sunrise to sunset; like layl , it has neither dual, nor plural (since the forms anhur , nuhur and, in dialect, nahārāt , are secondary and judged inadmissible by the grammarians, who can only account for them as an aberrant transfer from the generic to the particular, from d̲j̲ins to nawʿ ); but it is not a collective and, for this reason, it has no noun of unity and cannot itself supply this function. Thus the correlative of opposition to layl, nahār , cannot be opposed to laylat un, of which the antonym is yawm (pl. ayyām ), signifying “day” (of twenty-four hours). So one says layl an wa-nahārun “night and day, by night and day” (e.g. Ḳurʾān, LXXI, 5), but yawm wa-layla, “a day and a night” is twenty-four hours and not thirty-six; the famous battles of the pre-Islamic Arabs, which did not take place at night, are known by the expression ayyām al-ʿArab [q.v.], generally translated as “the days of the Arabs”. On the other hand, nahār is sometimes a substitute for yawm, as in Moroccan dialect where, in stories, “one day” is always wāḥd ǝn-nhāṛ and one even encounters wāḥd ən-nhāṛ ... f-əl-lil (e.g. G. S. Colin, Chrestomathie marocaine , 87). On the other hand, ayyām and layālī are, in certain cases, interchangeable. While the “borrowed days”, each one of which effectively lasts twenty-four hours, are known in Arabic as ayyām al-ʿad̲j̲ūz [q.v.], the very cold period which begins in December and ends ¶ forty days later is always called al-layālī al-sūd “the black nights”, while the forty “mottled” days which, in two series of twenty, immediately precede and follow it and during which the cold is less severe, are sometimes called al-ayyām al-bulḳ (e.g. in the Calendrier de Cordoue , sometimes al-layālī al-bulḳ (especially by al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , ii, 384).
Similarly, the distances which we express in “a days’ journey” are measured by the Arabs in stages ( marḥala , pl. marāḥil ), translated either as “days” ( ayyām ) or as “nights” ( layālī , even in reference to a country where day-time travel is practicable). While the day of the month can be expressed by means of yawm followed by an ordinal number up to 19, an ordinal and a cardinal from 20 upwards ( alyawma H-t̲h̲ālit̲h̲a wa ’l-Hs̲h̲rīna min Ṣafar = 23 Ṣafar), a calculation based on nights is used in preference, most often with elision of the word layla or layālī, but with the feminine form of the numerical noun (whereas yawm or ayyām would demand the masculine), for example: li-arbaʿa ʿas̲h̲rata k̲h̲alat/k̲h̲alawna min Muḥarram = “fourteen (nights) having elapsed of Muḥarram = the 14th of the month (not the 15th, since the official day begins at sunset), or: li-ʿas̲h̲r baḳiyat/baḳīna min Muḥarram = “ten (nights) remaining of Muḥarram” the 20th of the month. (In this context, in calculating correspondence with the Julian or Gregorian calendars, it is important to know if an event dated on a certain day happened before midnight, in which case the corresponding date indicated by the tables should be put back one unit.)
Being accustomed to look to the sky for guidance while travelling at night, and to use the stars [see anwāʾ ] and the phases of the moon [see Ḳamar ] for the measurement of time, the ancient Arabs divided the lunar month into ten periods of three nights bearing names chosen for the most part as references to the different shapes of the moon or to the degree of its brightness: 1-3: g̲h̲urar (or g̲h̲urr , ḳurḥ ); 4-6: nufal (or d̲j̲uhar , s̲h̲uhb ); 7-9: tusāʾ (or zuhr , buhr ); 10-12: ʿus̲h̲ar 13-15: bīḍ 16-18: duraʿ (or durʿ ); 19-21: ẓulam 22-24: ḥanādis (or nuḥs , duhm ); 25-27: dāʾādiʾ (or ḳuḥam ); 28-30: ma/i/uḥāḳ . These three last nights were qualified with, respectively, daʿdjaʾ , dahmāʾ and laylāʾ , but the 30th also bore the names sa/irār , sarar , naḥīra , daʾdaʾ , falta . The first and the last days of the month, in historical works and correspondence, are also designated by terms connected with the moon: g̲h̲urra for the first and munsalak̲h̲ or sarār for the last. There also exists a different nomenclature in which nights from the 13th to the 21st bear the same names as those detailed in the scheme above, but the others are: 1-3: hilāl 4-6: ḳamar 7-12: nufal; 22-27: ḥanādis; 28-29: dāʾādiʾatān 30: ma/i/uḥāḳ (for all these names, see Ibn Ḳutayba, Anwāʾ , § 159; al-Masʿūdī, Murūd̲j̲ , iii, 429-31= §§ 1316-18; Calendrier de Cordoue, 18; al-Bīrūnī, Chronologie , 63-4; Ibn Sīduh, Muk̲h̲aṣṣaṣ , ix, 30-1; Ibn al-Ad̲j̲dābī, al-Azmina wa ’l-anwāʾ , 85-7; M. Rodinson, La lune chez les Arabes et dans l’Islam in Sources orientales . La lune, mythes et rites, Paris 1962 163-4).
The ancient Arabs possessed a host of epithets to describe a dark night but it is scarcely possible to establish a gradation between them. The majority of these terms, some of which are quite expressive (e.g. musḥankik , muṭlak̲h̲imm ), have fallen into disuse; we shall mention only the following: layla ẓalmāʾ muẓlima , mudlahimma , dayd̲j̲ur , “very dark”; muʿlankisa , bahīm , “where one can see nothing”; ṭak̲h̲yāʾ , dād̲j̲iya , “overcast and moonless”; sadaf , g̲h̲aṭas̲h̲ ¶ “penumbral”; layl musd̲j̲ahirr or mud̲j̲rahidd , “long night” (see Ibn Sīduh, op. laud ., ix, 37-41).
From the whole of this rich vocabulary, attested in ancient poetry or compiled by ruwāt and reproduced scrupulously, though without much enthusiasm, by lexicographers, only the most current elements (in particular those derived from the root ẓ-l-m ) figure in the Ḳurʾān, where day and night are items of considerable importance; we may in fact count a total of 57 occurrences of nahār , 79 of layl , 7 of layla and 4 of layālī (compared with 36 of yawm, 27 of ayyām and 69 of yawmaʾid̲h̲ in). The day and the night, naturally created by God and put at the disposal of mankind (XIV, 37/33) are signs (XVII, 13/12, XLI, 37) of divine power; they are mutually concurrent (XXXI, 28/29, XXXIX, 7/5, LVII, 6), and God brings forth the day from the night (XXXVI 37; see also VII, 52/54); complementary (VI, 13, 60, XXV, 49/47, XXVII, 88/86, XXX, 22/23, XXXIV, 32/33, XXXVI, 40, XL, I 63/61), they succeed one another regularly, with emphasis placed on this succession ( ik̲h̲tilāf al-layl wa ’l-nahār , II, 159/164, IV, 187/190, X, 6, XXIII, I 92/80, XLV, 4/5), which is sometimes treated by translators as a contrast between two creations which renew themselves constantly (hence the term al-d̲j̲adīdān i, “the two new ones”). The two words appear together in a total of 24 verses.
The word sāʿa , which occurs 47 times in the Ḳurʾān (in 33 cases to designate the [Last] Hour) meant nothing more than “a moment, a brief lapse of time”, for the ancient Arabs apparently did not divide the day in 24 hours; this usage, a perfectly understandable one, is retained in the classical language, where expressions are encountered such as summ u sāʿat in “instantly fatal poison”. The concept of the hour was, however, introduced into Arab culture at an early stage, for it was indispensable to astronomers, who distinguished between equal or average hours ( sāʿāt muʿtadilāt ) and unequal or true hours [ zamāniyyāt or muʿwad̲j̲d̲j̲at , and Islamic civilisation was at quite an early stage familiar with various types of clock [see Ḥiyal , in Suppl.] which were evidently not at the disposal of the majority of peoples. However, references in historical texts to events which took place, for example, at the third hour of the day or of the night, lead one to suspect that this notion was more widespread than is generally thought; it is thus possible that in a period which cannot be precisely identified, the day and the night were divided into twelve hours, the relative proximity of the equator making fluctuations in their duration according to the seasons a matter of small account. This method of reckoning is still in use in Arabia, where, now that the possession of watches is widespread, it causes a certain amount of confusion.
The night begins immediately after sunset, which marks the start of the official day; this is why, when one talks of the previous night, the Arabic expression is al-laylata “this night”, if the time is before midday (but al-bāriḥata “[the night] that has passed” if the time is after midday). The divisions of the night were not precisely defined, in spite of the rich vocabulary which is to be found, for example, in the Muk̲h̲aṣṣaṣ (ix, 44-8) of Ibn Sīduh who mentions, following Kuṭrub (ix, 37) five parts ( ad̲j̲zāʾ ) named respectively: k̲h̲udra , mudḳa , sudfa , had̲j̲ma and yaʿfūr these expressions do not seem to have been in widespread use and, in any case, they are not defined in a satisfactory manner. However, the need to fix the hours of the three canonical prayers which take place during the night obliged the Muslims to interpret precisely ¶ the meanings of certain ancient terms and to establish with accuracy the times to which they apply. Among the many words denoting the beginning of the night, s̲h̲afaḳ , has been sanctioned by usage; in the Ḳurʾān (LXXXIV, 16), Allāh swears by the s̲h̲afaḳ, interpreted as meaning either “twilight” or “day”, as opposed to the night which figures in the oath contained in the following verse, but it is agreed that this term designated “the evening twilight”, the time at which the mag̲h̲rib prayer should be performed [see mīḳāt ]. Some authors distinguish two twilights, of which the first is characterised by the redness of the sky and the second by its pallor (e.g. Ibn al-Ad̲j̲ābī, op. laud ., 118), but this distinction is secondary. The astronomic twilight lasts for as long as it takes the sun to descend 18° below the horizon (or 1 hour, 12 minutes, since 15° = 1 hour), and Muslim scholars adopt the average figure of 17°; it is however quite certain that the real duration of the s̲h̲afaḳ varies according to lattitude, season and meteorological conditions; this is why the calendars indicate it regularly to enable the faithful to perform the prayer within the required time; one might naturally ask on what observations are based the figures supplied for example by the Calendrier de Cordoue , where this duration (and that of the morning twilight, the fad̲j̲r , which is reckoned to be identical) varies from 1 hour 1/7 on the 1st of January to 2 hours 1/8 on the 21st of June. As regards the mag̲h̲rib prayer, it is said in the Ḳurʾān (XVII, 80/77): aḳimi ’l-ṣalāta li-dulūki ’l-s̲h̲amsi ilā g̲h̲asaḳi ’l-layl , and the end of the s̲h̲afaḳ effectively marks the start of the g̲h̲asaḳ (which was also known by other names: ẓalām , even if the moon was shining, iḳtiḥām al-layl , etc.); the beginning of the latter period is the time for the prayer of ʿis̲h̲āʾ , which some call incorrectly al-ʿis̲h̲āʾ al-ak̲h̲īra , as opposed to a ʿis̲h̲āʾ ūlā = ṣalāt al-mag̲h̲rib , and which the Bedouins were reproached for calling ṣalāt al-ʿatama , after the first third of the night during which they customarily performed the milking ( istiʿtām ) of their camels. Although we know of a considerable number of terms designating any part of the night (see Muk̲h̲aṣṣaṣ , ix, 45), only a few words seem to be at all precise, in spite of differences in interpretation; thus, ʿas̲h̲wa , siʿw , hadʾ and variants = 1/4 of the night; ḳiṭʿa and variants = 1/3; d̲h̲uhl and variants = 1/3 or 1/2; hitāʾ , hazīʿ- , t̲h̲abad̲j̲ , mawhin and variants = 1/2 approximately. The middle of the night was called d̲j̲awz , usṭumm , d̲j̲ars̲h̲ , but astronomers rendered “midnight” simply by niṣf al-layl (in the same way they called “midday” niṣf al-nahār ) and the modern language uses the expression muntaṣaf al-layl . The ʿasʿasa precedes the third third, the saḥar or saḥr , which matches the g̲h̲asaḳ and is immediately followed by the morning twilight, the fad̲j̲r; for the Muslim astronomers, this twilight begins at the moment that the sun is 19° below the horizon, but the real duration of it is indicated, as has been seen above, in the calendars. It is during this final part of the night that the morning prayer (fad̲j̲r or ṣubḥ ) is performed. Since their territory did not extend as far as latitude 48°, the Arabs did not know that at the summer solstice there is no complete night (the layl alyal of the astronomers) at this latitude.
Night travellers experienced a certain relief when they observed the first lights of dawn, and they tended to include the fad̲j̲r in the nahār ; a reflection of this conception is also found in the works of lexicographers who normally place the ṣubḥ (or ṣabīḥa or ṣabāḥ ) at the end of the night and are furthermore inclined to make it the beginning of the day, calling ¶ g̲h̲udwa or bukra the time which elapses between the fad̲j̲r prayer and the sunrise (see Muk̲h̲aṣṣas , ix, 48-52). Although the prayers which punctuate the Muslim’s life obliged the fuḳahāʾ to fix with a degree of exactitude the time of the ẓuhr and of the ʿaṣr (let alone the ḍuḥā ), the divisions of the day lack precision. The nahār begins at the moment that the upper edge of the sun appears on the horizon, just as the night and the official day begin when the opposite edge, now uppermost, disappears. The first part of the day, up to the moment when the sun has traversed a quarter of the diurnal arc, is called ḍuḥā; the period corresponding to the sun’s progress over the second quarter of the arc is known as ḍaḥāʾ ; it comes to an end at midday ( zawāl ), which is marked, for the astronomers, by the sun crossing the meridian and, for the simple faithful, by the displacement of the shade which moves from the west (where it is called the ẓill ) to the east (where it takes the name fayʾ ). It is at this moment that there begins the period, varying according to the judicial schools [see mīḳāt ], during which the midday prayer (ẓuhr) must be performed. A number of terms referring to the heat which then reigns are employed ( ẓāhirat hād̲j̲ira , ḳāʾila , g̲h̲āʾira ), without designating a precise lapse of time. Some calendars indicate, at the beginning and the end of each month of the solar year, the altitude ( irtifāʿ ) in degrees of the sun at midday (e.g. the Calendrier de Cordoue, or, to enable the faithful to calculate for themselves the hour of the ẓuhr, the length of the shadow either in feet, as in the Risāla of Ibn al-Bannāʾ, or in height ( ḳāma ), once again as in the Calendrier de Cordoue, where the shade varies from a quarter of the height of an object on the 16th of June and the 1st of July, to one and five-sixths on the 16th of December. The period which follows that of the ẓuhr and also extends between limits determined by the length of the shadow, but variable according to the fuḳaḥāʾ , is that of the ʿaṣr (see I. Goldziher, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft , ix 293 ff.; transi, in Arabica vii/1 [1960], 26 ff.); this term is thus precisely defined in Islam, although diverse and much less definite interpretations are retained. Aṣīl was used in reference to the time which elapses between the ʿaṣr and sunset, but this word tends to be employed, in the contemporary language, for the evening twilight; masāʾ , which had the same meaning, is today applied to the evening, as opposed to ṣabāḥ, “morning”, and also comes to designate the period which begins at noon and encroaches upon the night; the word ʿas̲h̲iyya (and variants) is also taken in the sense of “evening”, although it used to be as precise as maṣāʾ and aṣīl , designated the end of the nahār and was the opposite of ḍuḥā (e.g. Ḳurʾān, LXXIX, 46: illā ʿas̲h̲iyyatan wa-ḍuḥāhā ).
The calendars to which reference has been made often attach importance to the length of the day and of the night, which some of them indicate twice a month, either in degrees of the sun’s arc, or in hours. Since the authors who supply these figures are not usually astronomers, they give the impression of borrowing these numerical data from their predecessors, without perhaps taking account of differences in latitude, especially in view of the fact that, when addressing themselves to their fellow-citizens, they do not take the trouble to establish the name, and the position relative to the Equator, of the place concerned. It would nevertheless be possible to calculate the latitude of this place if one could rely on the accuracy of the data relating to the length of the longest and shortest days and nights of the year, but in this ¶ respect great uncertainty remains. It is furthermore to be noted that the geographers, heirs to the Ptolemaic tradition, divide the zone reckoned to be inhabited in the northern hemisphere, as far as approximately latitude 50°, into seven climates [see iḳlīm ], of which the lower and upper limits are constituted by parallels separated one from the other by a distance corresponding to a difference in half-an-hour in the length of the longest day of the year.
- Bibliography
Given in the article.
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Pellat, Ch., “Layl and Nahār”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 10 January 2017 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4651>